[57], News then reached Alexander that Cleitus, King of Illyria, and King Glaukias of the Taulantii were in open revolt against his authority. Alexander the Great was one of the most influential people in history. [63] Greeks used the word Margites to describe fool and useless people, on account of the Margites. [52] This reply apparently delighted Alexander, who is reported to have said "But verily, if I were not Alexander, I would like to be Diogenes. [119][120] Choosing a local helped him control these lands so distant from Greece. Having damaged the enemy's cohesion, Philip ordered his troops to press forward and quickly routed them. [21][22][23] Among them were Artabazos II and his daughter Barsine, future mistress of Alexander, who resided at the Macedonian court from 352 to 342 BC, as well as Amminapes, future satrap of Alexander, or a Persian nobleman named Sisines. By the time of his death, he had conquered the entire. [4][5] In 334 BC, he invaded the Achaemenid Empire (Persian Empire) and began a series of campaigns that lasted 10 years. )", East-West Orientation of Historical Empires, (Libanius, Oration In Praise Of Antioch, 88. [245] Aspects of Hellenistic culture were still evident in the traditions of the Byzantine Empire in the mid-15th century.[250]. Alexander III of Macedon (356 – 323 B.C. [40] Olympias and several of Alexander's friends suggested this showed Philip intended to make Arrhidaeus his heir. This victory exposed western Asia Minor to the Macedonians, and most cities hastened to open their gates. [176], Arrian and Plutarch claimed that Alexander was speechless by this point, implying that this was an apocryphal story. Alexander not only returned Ambhi his title and the gifts but he also presented him with a wardrobe of "Persian robes, gold and silver ornaments, 30 horses and 1,000 talents in gold". [175][199] His unique abilities were further demonstrated by the inability of any of his generals to unite Macedonia and retain the Empire after his death—only Alexander had the ability to do so. An emotional scene of reconciliation was followed by a vast banquet with 9,000 guests to celebrate the ending of the misunderstanding and the partnership in government of Macedonians and Persians—but not, as has been argued, the incorporation of all the subject peoples as partners in the commonwealth. [272] One well-known fable among Greek seamen involves a solitary mermaid who would grasp a ship's prow during a storm and ask the captain "Is King Alexander alive?" Concerned that other Greek states might intervene, Alexander made it look as though he was preparing to attack Illyria instead. [202] Nevertheless, Plutarch described how Alexander was infatuated by Roxana while complimenting him on not forcing himself on her. Both in Egypt and elsewhere in the Greek cities he received divine honours. [259] Polybius began his Histories by reminding Romans of Alexander's achievements, and thereafter Roman leaders saw him as a role model. The Histories of Alexander the Great (Latin: Historiae Alexandri Magni) is the only ancient Latin biography of Alexander the Great. [136] Alexander admired Cyrus the Great, from an early age reading Xenophon's Cyropaedia, which described Cyrus's heroism in battle and governance as a king and legislator. Taking advantage of this power vacuum, Chandragupta Maurya (referred to in Greek sources as "Sandrokottos"), of relatively humble origin, took control of the Punjab, and with that power base proceeded to conquer the Nanda Empire. [16], Alexander's most immediate legacy was the introduction of Macedonian rule to huge new swathes of Asia. The Ptolemaic dynasty survived until the death of Cleopatra VII in 30 BCE, at which point Egypt was conquered by the Romans. [62][64], In 336 BC Philip II had already sent Parmenion, with Amyntas, Andromenes and Attalus, and an army of 10,000 men into Anatolia to make preparations for an invasion to free the Greeks living on the western coast and islands from Achaemenid rule. Gaugamela would be the final and decisive encounter between the two. [16], This article is about the ancient king of Macedonia. Ten thousand veterans were now sent back to Macedonia with gifts, and the crisis was surmounted. This is cited as a reason for sparing Jerusalem. For they were told that the kings of the Ganderites and Praesii were awaiting them with eighty thousand horsemen, two hundred thousand footmen, eight thousand chariots, and six thousand war elephants. This culminated in his aspiration to homogenize the populations of Asia and Europe. This ensured that Alexander would not be outflanked, while his phalanx, armed with long pikes, had a considerable advantage over the Persians' scimitars and javelins. At length, at the Amanis, he was rejoined by Nearchus and the fleet, which also had suffered losses. Alexander was emboldened to divide his forces, and Ambhi assisted Hephaestion and Perdiccas in constructing a bridge over the Indus where it bends at Hund,[115] supplied their troops with provisions, and received Alexander himself, and his whole army, in his capital city of Taxila, with every demonstration of friendship and the most liberal hospitality. Crossing the Elburz Mountains to the Caspian, he seized Zadracarta in Hyrcania and received the submission of a group of satraps and Persian notables, some of whom he confirmed in their offices; in a diversion westward, perhaps to modern Āmol, he reduced the Mardi, a mountain people who inhabited the Elburz Mountains. As Mazaeus’s appointment indicated, Alexander’s views on the empire were changing. [129] Alexander reached Susa in 324 BC, but not before losing many men to the harsh desert. Crossing the river at night, he surprised them and forced their army to retreat after the first cavalry skirmish. [49] Alexander spared Arrhidaeus, who was by all accounts mentally disabled, possibly as a result of poisoning by Olympias. Alexander now proceeded farther with the policy of replacing senior officials and executing defaulting governors on which he had already embarked before leaving India. When Alexander asked Diogenes what he could do for him, the philosopher disdainfully asked Alexander to stand a little to the side, as he was blocking the sunlight. Taking almost 2 years to accomplish it, Alexander's army marched from Kabul to the Beas (Hyphasis, on the rivers of … [137], Afterwards, Alexander travelled to Ecbatana to retrieve the bulk of the Persian treasure. In the years following his death, a series of civil wars tore his empire apart, resulting in the establishment of several states ruled by the Diadochi, Alexander's surviving generals and heirs. [190], According to Plutarch, among Alexander's traits were a violent temper and rash, impulsive nature,[199] which undoubtedly contributed to some of his decisions. In midsummer 330 Alexander set out for the eastern provinces at a high speed via Rhagae (modern Rayy, near Tehrān) and the Caspian Gates, where he learned that Bessus, the satrap of Bactria, had deposed Darius. Both kings were murdered, Arrhidaeus in 317 and Alexander in 310/309. Alexander's will called for military expansion into the southern and western Mediterranean, monumental constructions, and the intermixing of Eastern and Western populations. [233] Green suggested that, in the context of the period, Alexander formed quite strong friendships with women, including Ada of Caria, who adopted him, and even Darius' mother Sisygambis, who supposedly died from grief upon hearing of Alexander's death. The horse refused to be mounted, and Philip ordered it away. His body, diverted to Egypt by Ptolemy, the later king, was eventually placed in a golden coffin in Alexandria. His son and successor, Caracalla, a great admirer, visited the tomb during his own reign. When Miletus, encouraged by the proximity of the Persian fleet, resisted, Alexander took it by assault, but, refusing a naval battle, he disbanded his own costly navy and announced that he would “defeat the Persian fleet on land,” by occupying the coastal cities. In the end, Philip chose Aristotle and provided the Temple of the Nymphs at Mieza as a classroom. The legacy of conquest: from 323 BC: Alexander has no heir (though the posthumous son of one of his wives is formally referred to as the king, until murdered in his early teens in 309). Crushing the mountain tribe of the Ouxians, he now pressed on over the Zagros range into Persia proper and, successfully turning the Pass of the Persian Gates, held by the satrap Ariobarzanes, he entered Persepolis and Pasargadae. Apelles, however, in painting him as wielder of the thunder-bolt, did not reproduce his complexion, but made it too dark and swarthy. After this, details on the fate of the tomb are hazy.[165]. Alexander replied that since he was now king of Asia, it was he alone who decided territorial divisions. The Phoenician cities Marathus and Aradus came over quietly, and Parmenio was sent ahead to secure Damascus and its rich booty, including Darius’s war chest. [154] Veratrum album poisoning can have a prolonged course and it was suggested that if Alexander was poisoned, Veratrum album offers the most plausible cause. [197][201] However, he had little interest in sports or the Olympic games (unlike his father), seeking only the Homeric ideals of honour (timê) and glory (kudos). Sometime after the wedding, Philip is said to have seen himself, in a dream, securing his wife's womb with a seal engraved with a lion's image. Alexander was proclaimed king on the spot by the nobles and army at the age of 20. [225] This episode is also told by Plutarch, probably based on the same source. [45][46][47], Alexander began his reign by eliminating potential rivals to the throne. The following spring at Babylon he received complimentary embassies from the Libyans and from the Bruttians, Etruscans, and Lucanians of Italy; but the story that embassies also came from more distant peoples, such as Carthaginians, Celts, Iberians, and even Romans, is a later invention. The Greek cities on the western coast of Anatolia revolted until the news arrived that Philip had been murdered and had been succeeded by his young son Alexander. Ancient commentators were divided about whether the ambitious Olympias promulgated the story of Alexander's divine parentage, variously claiming that she had told Alexander, or that she dismissed the suggestion as impious. A 1998 article in the New England Journal of Medicine attributed his death to typhoid fever complicated by bowel perforation and ascending paralysis. Half the army with the baggage under Hephaestion and Perdiccas, both cavalry commanders, was sent through the Khyber Pass, while he himself led the rest, together with his siege train, through the hills to the north. This policy of racial fusion brought increasing friction to Alexander’s relations with his Macedonians, who had no sympathy for his changed concept of the empire. [138][139] Hephaestion's death devastated Alexander, and he ordered the preparation of an expensive funeral pyre in Babylon, as well as a decree for public mourning. Even by Macedonian standards he was very short, though stocky and tough. [274] Firdausi's Shahnameh ("The Book of Kings") includes Alexander in a line of legitimate Persian shahs, a mythical figure who explored the far reaches of the world in search of the Fountain of Youth. From Pamphylia onwards the coast held no major ports and Alexander moved inland. Alexander III the Great, the King of Macedonia and conqueror of the Persian Empire is considered one of the greatest military geniuses of all times. In reconciliation Alexander married her, and the rest of his opponents were either won over or crushed. The people welcomed him as their deliverer, and the Persian satrap Mazaces wisely surrendered. That same day, Philip received news that his general Parmenion had defeated the combined Illyrian and Paeonian armies and that his horses had won at the Olympic Games. Alexander the Great conquers Persia. Alexander was the son of a Greek king called Philip II. This edition can be found on the Hathi Trust website, and the following table contains links to the individual chapters in the translation, together with the translator's introduction. Darius’s Greek mercenaries were largely massacred, but 2,000 survivors were sent back to Macedonia in chains. [12] Plutarch stated that Philip, overjoyed at this display of courage and ambition, kissed his son tearfully, declaring: "My boy, you must find a kingdom big enough for your ambitions. Please select which sections you would like to print: Corrections? Meanwhile, Darius with his Grand Army had advanced northward on the eastern side of Mount Amanus. He was inspiration for later conquerors such as Hannibal the Carthaginian, the Romans Pompey and Caesar, and Napoleon. He invited the chieftains of the former satrapy of Gandhara (a region presently straddling eastern Afghanistan and northern Pakistan), to come to him and submit to his authority. There have been, since the time, many suspicions that Pausanias was actually hired to murder Philip. [190] However, Ogden calculates that Alexander, who impregnated his partners thrice in eight years, had a higher matrimonial record than his father at the same age. [167][168], Pompey, Julius Caesar and Augustus all visited the tomb in Alexandria, where Augustus, allegedly, accidentally knocked the nose off. He is considered one of the greatest military commanders in history. [18], When Alexander was 13, Philip began to search for a tutor, and considered such academics as Isocrates and Speusippus, the latter offering to resign from his stewardship of the Academy to take up the post. Ancient Antioch, Glanville Downey, Princeton University Press, 2015. The campaign took Alexander through Media, Parthia, Aria (West Afghanistan), Drangiana, Arachosia (South and Central Afghanistan), Bactria (North and Central Afghanistan), and Scythia. From age 13 to 16 he was taught by the Greek philosopher Aristotle, who inspired his interest in philosophy, medicine, and scientific investigation. [202], Alexander was erudite and patronized both arts and sciences. [123] Philostratus the Elder in the Life of Apollonius of Tyana writes that in the army of Porus there was an elephant who fought brave against Alexander's army and Alexander dedicated it to the Helios (Sun) and named it Ajax, because he thought that a so great animal deserved a great name. Bessus was now in Bactria raising a national revolt in the eastern satrapies with the usurped title of Great King. Alexander the great facts. In July 331 Alexander was at Thapsacus on the Euphrates. Campaigning against the Greek city of Perinthus, Alexander is reported to have saved his father's life. [132][133] As a gesture of thanks, he paid off the debts of his soldiers, and announced that he would send over-aged and disabled veterans back to Macedon, led by Craterus. Alexander's legacy includes the cultural diffusion and syncretism which his conquests engendered, such as Greco-Buddhism. Then Philip, taking Attalus's part, rose up and would have run his son through; but by good fortune for them both, either his over-hasty rage, or the wine he had drunk, made his foot slip, so that he fell down on the floor. However, Alexander met with resistance at Gaza. From Maracanda (modern Samarkand) Alexander advanced by way of Cyropolis to the Jaxartes (modern Syrdarya), the boundary of the Persian empire. Shortly afterward, however, Callisthenes was held to be privy to a conspiracy among the royal pages and was executed (or died in prison; accounts vary); resentment of this action alienated sympathy from Alexander within the Peripatetic school of philosophers, with which Callisthenes had close connections. [109], When Alexander set out for Asia, he left his general Antipater, an experienced military and political leader and part of Philip II's "Old Guard", in charge of Macedon. [248] The close association of men from across Greece in Alexander's army directly led to the emergence of the largely Attic-based "koine", or "common" Greek dialect. The empire could hardly survive Alexander’s death as a unit. However, its after-effects shook the Jewish world to its roots. Miletus, held by Achaemenid forces, required a delicate siege operation, with Persian naval forces nearby. The Ptolemaic Kingdom was a Hellenistic kingdom based in Egypt, and ruled by the Ptolemaic dynasty, starting with Ptolemy I Soter’s accession to the throne following the death of Alexander the Great. This discontent was now fanned by the arrival of 30,000 native youths who had received a Macedonian military training and by the introduction of Asian peoples from Bactria, Sogdiana, Arachosia, and other parts of the empire into the Companion cavalry; whether Asians had previously served with the Companions is uncertain, but if so they must have formed separate squadrons. Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. Alexander personally defeated the Scythians at the Battle of Jaxartes and immediately launched a campaign against Spitamenes, defeating him in the Battle of Gabai. He at once executed the princes of Lyncestis, alleged to be behind Philip’s murder, along with all possible rivals and the whole of the faction opposed to him. - [Instructor] Now, we're going to talk about one of the most famous conquerors in all of human history, and that is Alexander the Great. At which Alexander reproachfully insulted over him: "See there," said he, "the man who makes preparations to pass out of Europe into Asia, overturned in passing from one seat to another. Born in 356 BC, in Mesopotamia (modern day Greece), to king Phillip II, Alexander followed in his father’s footsteps and achieved success as a young warrior. Philip waged war against Byzantion, leaving Alexander in charge as regent and heir apparent. When the animal died (because of old age, according to Plutarch, at age thirty), Alexander named a city after him, Bucephala. Alexander’s march through Gedrosia proved disastrous; waterless desert and shortage of food and fuel caused great suffering, and many, especially women and children, perished in a sudden monsoon flood while encamped in a wadi. He never lost a battle, despite typically being outnumbered. There is no reason to assume that his demand had any political background (divine status gave its possessor no particular rights in a Greek city); it was rather a symptom of growing megalomania and emotional instability. The cities perforce complied, but often ironically: the Spartan decree read, “Since Alexander wishes to be a god, let him be a god.”. His troops were extremely loyal, believing in him throughout all hardships. After conquering cities, Alexander the Great would name them after himself. Many of these areas remained in Macedonian hands or under Greek influence for the next 200–300 years. [97] As Alexander approached, Bessus had his men fatally stab the Great King and then declared himself Darius' successor as Artaxerxes V, before retreating into Central Asia to launch a guerrilla campaign against Alexander. [13] Plutarch offered a variety of interpretations of these dreams: that Olympias was pregnant before her marriage, indicated by the sealing of her womb; or that Alexander's father was Zeus. [157] Another recent analysis suggested pyogenic (infectious) spondylitis or meningitis. Alexander the Great, King of Macedon from 336 - 323 B.C., may claim the title of the greatest military leader the world has ever known. Alexander then marched for three days to the Danube, encountering the Getae tribe on the opposite shore. [138][190][222] Hephaestion's death devastated Alexander. Be on the lookout for your Britannica newsletter to get trusted stories delivered right to your inbox. [37] The marriage made Alexander's position as heir less secure, since any son of Cleopatra Eurydice would be a fully Macedonian heir, while Alexander was only half-Macedonian. Philip then returned to Elatea, sending a final offer of peace to Athens and Thebes, who both rejected it. At Persepolis he ceremonially burned down the palace of Xerxes, as a symbol that the Panhellenic war of revenge was at an end; for such seems the probable significance of an act that tradition later explained as a drunken frolic inspired by Thaïs, an Athenian courtesan. He spent most of his ruling years on an unprecedented military campaign through western Asiaand northeast Africa, and by the age … The Macedonians were a Greek tribe. Alexander eventually agreed and turned south, marching along the Indus. [82] During his stay in Egypt, he founded Alexandria-by-Egypt, which would become the prosperous capital of the Ptolemaic Kingdom after his death. [273] In Sunni Islamic Persia, under the influence of the Alexander Romance (in Persian: اسکندرنامه‎ Iskandarnamah), a more positive portrayal of Alexander emerges. Alexander then faced the Assakenoi, who fought against him from the strongholds of Massaga, Ora and Aornos. Alexander responded quickly, driving them from their territory. This ruthless action excited widespread horror but strengthened Alexander’s position relative to his critics and those whom he regarded as his father’s men. The Persian plan to tempt Alexander across the river and kill him in the melee almost succeeded; but the Persian line broke, and Alexander’s victory was complete. Of Persian rule and spread Greek civilization and culture into Asia and Europe satrapies handed out by Perdiccas the! 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